Phoebe was an important woman honored by Paul in his biblical letter to the Romans. We can imagine what she was like by examining average women in the Golden Age of Rome. Women were second-class citizens. They still had significant financial power and influence. Women played a central role in running the household while having many other occupations. They had a role in public life, including as patrons and priests. A virtuous Roman woman often kept out of public life while still playing a significant role in society.
In Praise of Phoebe
Paul played a major role in the spread of early Christianity. He wrote many letters during his long career. In one letter to a Christian community in Rome, Paul praised a certain woman:
I commend to you our sister Phoebe, a deacon of the church at Cenchreae, so that you may welcome her in the Lord as is fitting for the saints, and help her in whatever she may require from you, for she has been a benefactor of many and of myself as well.
Paul wrote this letter about 50 CE. His letters are a helpful primary source for historians.
We learn nothing else about Phoebe, who lived in Cenchreae, a Greek port city. A historian can still parse this short tidbit to obtain useful information.
Phoebe was a deacon (a type of church assistant), benefactor (perhaps financial), and admirable individual. She also might have carried the letter herself (“welcome her”) to its recipients.
Can we learn more about Phoebe? Playing historian, we can try. We can learn about the average woman at this time, during the Pax Romana (Golden Age) of the Roman Empire.
How Do We Know
We have many sources that provide information on women in Ancient Rome.
The sources include personal letters, government documents (such as wills), and public memorials. For instance, burial monuments and public memorials honoring women often provide helpful details about a woman’s family, occupation, civic activities, and donations.
We also learn about the social expectations for men and women. Philosophers advised how each sex should act. A variety of sources provide us a window into the gender expectations of Rome.
Second Class But Not Without Power
Men were believed to be superior to women. They legally had more authority. Men were socially more influential. Romans also philosophically thought men were better than women.
Women still played a significant role in Roman society. A woman of means could be more influential than a poor man. They also had some legal rights and authority.
Both men and women could divorce. Women had much responsibility in the household.
They were respected daughters, wives, and mothers. Women were honored members of the community, often with significant power and influence. They could be Roman citizens.
Financial Matters
The father was the legal head of the family. They controlled the property of their wife and children. The father controlled their children’s property even while the children were adults.
Fathers traditionally gave their children equal shares of the family property. Daughters would therefore often have property of their own. Let’s say Marcus gave his daughter Claudia some farmland. Claudia’s farmland might produce wine. It could be a very profitable business.
Wives received a dowry. A father provided their daughter with property when they married. The husband could use the property. Nonetheless, he could not sell it. A woman’s dowry was both an inviting incentive for a potential husband and a safety net.
Roman women had money of their own. Money brought power and responsibility.
Women could not vote and were unable to serve in many public positions. Nonetheless, women of means could financially support and advise. They often were patrons of family members.
Women also donated money for public works, including religious monuments. Church and state were not separate. Supporting local religious ceremonies and public temples was a social duty. Women with less money might pay for a portion of a mosaic (stone) floor in a temple.
There are many inscriptions honoring women who served as patrons to civic projects.
Occupations
Roman women had a central role in managing a household.
Girls often married in their teens and began to have children. Raising children was largely a woman’s responsibility. Well-off women had the assistance of servants, including wet nurses.
Women also took care of household tasks. They often had the responsibility to care for large properties while their husband was away. We have letters written by women regarding the purchase of necessary supplies or providing instructions on managing the household.
Women’s jobs also included merchants, jewelers, musicians, and textile workers. There were women nurses and doctors. Many women were slaves who were often skilled artisans.
They served as priests and in other religious roles. Women also held administrative positions. Some were “wreath wearers,” a sign of authority and respect.
Education
These jobs often suggest a certain education level, including the ability to read and write. A storekeeper, for instance, might need to keep the books. This involves math and writing.
Women were less likely than men to obtain an education. They were taught by their mothers and female relatives to do domestic tasks, including cooking and weaving.
Many did learn how to read and write. Girls and boys might go to the same school. Some were teachers. Others, including some well-off women, used scribes to write for them.
Virtuous Women
The traditional feminine virtues in Roman times were modesty, hard work, and loyalty. Women had a duty to their family, community, and religion. Public life was not their domain.
Women still played significant roles in public life, even if men had the primary role in governing and fighting wars. They often spoke out, including advising and petitioning government officials.
Phoebe and other women in Roman times played an important role in private and public life.