Hawaii’s transformation from an independent Polynesian kingdom to a U.S. state is a story of cultural change, political struggle, and competing interests. As foreign influence grew and American business power expanded, tensions rose over who should control the islands’ future. At the heart of this turning point was Queen Liliuokalani, whose fight to protect Hawaiian sovereignty set the stage for a dramatic and lasting conflict.
We have forty-eight contiguous (connected) states, along with one up there in the northwest corner. Alaska’s tail bleeds into Canada and is not too far from the rest of the United States. Hawaii, the only state not in North America, is more curious. How did it become a state?
[Note: The Hawaiian language has a symbol (‘) that is a letter in its language. The native spelling of the state is Hawai’i, which is often used in official state documents and elsewhere.]
Ancient Origins
Polynesia is a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean.
Polynesians arrived in modern-day Hawaii approximately 300 CE. “Hawaai” perhaps means “place of the gods” in reference to an ancient Polynesian homeland.
The first European visitor was the British explorer James Cook, who arrived in 1778. He named them the “Sandwich Islands” (not because he liked sandwiches).
The British did not take control.
King Kamehameha I united the islands in 1810. The country established a constitution, legislature, and public school system. The U.S. recognized its independence in 1826.
Early United States Involvement
The Hawaiian islands were the “Crossroads of the Pacific.” Trading ships of many nations stopped there. John Coffin Jones, Jr. was appointed the United States Agent for Commerce and Seamen on September 19, 1820. Hawaii had economic importance to the United States.
American missionaries began to arrive in the 1820s to convert people to Christianity. They also promoted the island as having economic potential, particularly for growing sugar cane. American investors began to buy large tracts of land. American influence grew socially and economically.
Hawaai was originally an important stop for whaling ships. Whaling went into decline, especially after the discovery of petroleum. Sugar became a primary industry for foreign investment.
After the Civil War
Mark Twain, a leading American writer and humorist after the Civil War, called Hawaii “the loveliest fleet of islands that lies anchored in any ocean.” The islands were on the American people’s minds. The United States tightened its influence over the islands in the 1870s.
The United States and Hawaii signed a free trade agreement in 1875. Trade goods entered each country duty-free (tax-free). Hawaii also agreed to make no territorial or economic concessions to other countries. Hawaii later agreed to provide the United States with exclusive use of Pearl Harbor. Was Hawaii truly independent or a de facto U.S. protectorate?
The independence of Hawaii was even more doubtful when the Hawaiian League, a non-native, mostly United States businessmen political party, forced the king at gunpoint to sign the “Bayonet Constitution.” This 1887 constitution greatly reduced the power of the Hawaiian monarchy (and the Hawaiian people) in favor of the white, English-speaking property owners.
It was the age of imperialism. Hawaii had economic and strategic importance. Pearl Harbor, for instance, had caught the eye of naval strategists. It provided a foothold in the Pacific.
Queen Liliuokalani
Queen Liliuokalani was a well-educated member of a high-ranking Hawaiian family. She was educated by American missionaries and married an American. A skilled musician, Liliuokalani wrote more than 160 songs, including “Aloha Oe,” which became the national anthem of Hawaii.
Liliuokalani was in her 50s when she took power in 1891. She had earlier served as regent when the king went on a world tour. She declared a new constitution, which gave more power to native Hawaiians and restored power to the sovereign.
She planned to be a strong queen. A group of American and European businessmen was not happy. They staged a coup in early 1893 with the support of John Stevens, the American minister. Stevens arranged for 150 marines to be sent ashore.
Queen Liliuokalani surrendered control under duress to avoid bloodshed. She hoped to regain control after appealing to the United States government. President Harrison negotiated a treaty with the new government to annex Hawaii. The “Hawaiian pear” was ripe for the picking.
Not So Fast
President Grover Cleveland then came in for the first non-consecutive second presidential term (the last until 2025). He opposed the annexation of Hawaii.
Cleveland determined the annexation was illegitimate. A congressional investigation agreed (Blount Report). He planned to return Queen Liliuokalani to the throne. Congress later passed a formal resolution (“the Apology Resolution”) in 1993, acknowledging wrongdoing.
The Senate refused to ratify the annexation treaty.
The new Hawaiian government, led by Sandford Dole, refused to give up power. The Dole government established the Republic of Hawaii. Annexation became a major political issue.
Hawaii Becomes A U.S. Territory
Supporters of making Hawaii a United States territory argued its strategic location, argued that other powers (including Japan) might seize control, and that we had a responsibility to civilize and Christianize the islands. Its economic value was also emphasized.
Opponents argued we should not become a colonializer. Did we not fight for independence to avoid that sort of thing? Being a colonial power was more trouble than it was worth. Some made racist appeals, arguing that Hawaiians were not fit to be Americans.
A new president (President McKinley) and the success of the Spanish-American War sealed the deal. Congress agreed to annexation by a joint resolution (like it did for Texas) in July 1898.
Hawaii formally became a territory with self-government and American citizenship in 1900. Statehood would take much longer, partially because of opposition to making a multi-ethnic population an equal member of the United States. Hawaii became the 50th state in 1959.